The automobile industry has been developing electric vehicles and hybrid electric-internal combustion vehicles (together, referred to as “electric vehicles” or “EVs”) in part to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide, thereby reducing air pollution and global warming. The development of rechargeable secondary batteries to drive the EVs is key to making such vehicles practicable. The lifespan of these rechargeable secondary batteries directly affects the performance of the EV, the economics of the EV and the perception of quality of the EV. Therefore, developing batteries that provide optimal performance and lifespan is key to the success of EVs.